History of Education Essay

Introduction The period between 1965 and the latter end of the 1980s witnessed significant developments in the provision of post primary education in Ireland. This coincided with changes in Irish and indeed worldwide society. What makes the changes that came about so significant was the fact that for so long education policy in Ireland had remained practically untouched. From the 1920s to the 1950s, Ireland was still a place where education was seen as Ideological and a â€Å"preserve of the middle classes†. The church/religious orders were still underpinning the structures in education. The 1920s was the era of the Gaelic League, and an attempt at reviving the ancient life of Ireland as a Gaelic State. During this time little was done to tackle the low levels of participation in education, especially amongst some groups of society, particularly people from poorer socio economic areas, people from rural areas, and girls in education. It was essentially a period of stagnation from the point of view of any development by government, or any change in attitude from the public towards education. Children were needed on farms to make ends meet. From the mid-sixties onwards however, things began to change. Over the course of the paper I hope to show how the general public understanding of and attitude towards education changed. I will discuss how the government’s attitude towards education also changed, in a number of ways, including how it was provided, and also what was provided as education. Policy, Curriculum, Access and Financing are areas that were all areas of major change. I hope to discuss how these changes in the provision of post-primary education came about, and how the understanding of schooling evolved and were articulated. Changes in public perception of education One of the biggest changes in Education during the 60‘s and early 70’s, was the way people viewed and understood Education. Ireland in the 1930s and 1940s was in a very bad economic situation, with an ailing economy and mass emigration. Between 1932 and 1948, Tomas Derek served as minister for education and effectively done nothing of major significance. Economic conditions were the basis for the decisions made during this time. It was felt there was no need to change the curriculum, peoples thinking was still very rigid, and the thought of free education wasn’t thought of as any way feasible or realistic, with ideas around this described as utopian. Developments were still being affected by post war economic conditions. So what paved the way for the change that was to come? The American economist and historian, Walt Rostow, in his book, â€Å"The Stages of Economic Development†, argues that there are 5 stages on the â€Å"Road to Development†. He speaks of a situation where there is a traditional society, where the ruling elite have all the say and prospects, and the lower income person has little or no prospect of improving their lot. Social customs and traditional values are strong. He argues that there is a second stage, and this is the one I feel Ireland went through in the latter half of the 50s, early 60s. He calls it â€Å"The Preconditions for Take-off†. In this stage people become more away of the possibilities that exist for them, and more aware of the benefits of education and developing new skills for careers away from the traditional farming. Prior to the Investment in Education bill, and the dawn of Free Education, Free buses, comprehensive schools, curriculum changes, there had to be a change in the way people thought. So what brought about this change? Around this time there was a radical change in peoples thinking and also in their expectations for life, brought on by, amongst other things; †¢ The dawn of television, which brought more information into people’s lives, opening their minds to new possibilities and bigger expectations of life, †¢ The establishment of state television in the shape of Telefis Eireann in 1962, which broadcast shows from Britain and America had a profound change on attitude. †¢ Women’s rights, the civil rights movement, the space race, were other events of the time that showed people that there were other possibilities now open to them. The 1960s generation were more vocal, liberal, and more politically aware. There was a growing awareness around this time of social exclusion, especially when it comes to people from poorer economic backgrounds, rural areas, and women. Together, these factors combined to change the way people were thinking about education, and ultimately, helped to change the way the state thought about education. People were now beginning to see that the longer a person could stay in education, and the more qualified they could become, the better chance they had in life of getting a more desirable job and salary. Changes in Investment in Education In terms of Investment in education, at the end of the 1950s, and beginning of the 1960s, Ireland was lagging far behind other countries in the world. To give an example of where we Ireland was at in 1959 in regards to investment in education, Ireland was investing 50p per child, whereas Russia was operating at a level fourteen times higher at ? 7, the USA at ? 5 per child, and perhaps most significant for us, GB/NI was investing ? 2. 25 per child in education. Ireland was coming from a very poor time in its economic history, post-World War II. However, around 1960, there was an upturn in the economy. With this came the thinking that there was a need for more technical skills, leading to the building of 35 Vocational schools, where more technical subjects would be taught. The problem with these schools was that they were poorly resourced, and it was expensive to fund this. The public was becoming increasingly aware of the correlation between spending on education and the increase in the standard of living. There was a growing demand for access to education for all. The OECD report which was commissioned in 1962 was produced in 1965. The report by the OECD was commissioned to analyse the education system in Ireland, identify areas of weakness, and recommend changes for the future. It was also supposed to identify the â€Å"manpower needs† of Ireland over the following 15-20 years. What the report did do was highlight the inequalities that existed in terms of opportunity when it came to access to post primary and 3rd level education and a host of other issues. This was to prove a catalyst for change throughout the following 25 years. The OECD report was the most thorough investigation of the Irish education system conducted in decades, if not ever. The 1991 OECD review of Irish National Policy has referred to the report of 1965 as â€Å"a landmark both in the national and international memory†, and â€Å"remarkable for its comprehensiveness, its studied detachment, its theoretical underpinning, its systematic accumulation of a mass of baseline data, its detailed estimates of quantitative trends and not least the originality of the methods that it used to penetrate unexplored territory†. It highlighted the high instances of school leavers at primary level, (around 17,000 per year (Randles 1975:216)), a low rate of pupils of vocational students going on to third level, (lack of Institute of technology’s at this time), and inequalities in education for children because of geographical location and/or social group, that is, they came from a disadvantaged background financially or from an a rural area with poor access to a school. The report recommended that there was a need for wider participation of students in schooling and for students to be in the education system for longer periods. The report also brought up the economic benefits to Ireland of having educated people. This was a change from the previous way of thinking whereby children were seen to be wasting their time continuing in education when they could be working and earning a wage. Its recommendations included the following; †¢ increased investment to get more children participating in education, and for longer, i. e. the use of scholarship schemes to increase participation †¢ a need for policy planning to improve education across the board in Ireland, at all levels †¢ A need for a programme of building which included amalgamating smaller schools to form bigger more efficient schools †¢ Up skilling and training, (or in service) for teachers. The OECD report wasn’t alone in highlighting these issues. The Labour Party policy document â€Å"Challenge and Change in Education† 1963, highlighted a lot of the same issues as the report, and highlighted the need for a less discriminatory educational system not only ‘†¦.. on social or moral grounds, but (as) a basic economic investment’; In the next few years, this country is going to face enormous economic problems, problems which may indeed put our survival as an independent nation in question. It is, therefore, essential that planning in education should be an inherent part of our economic planning. Already shortages of certain types of skill are becoming felt in our economy, and at the same time there is a surplus of other skills resulting in under employment and emigration (Randles 1975). The Federation of Irish Secondary Schools (1962) report, ‘Investment in Education in the Republic of Ireland’ argued that â€Å"Selfishness is almost always short-sighted†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦maintenance of such restrictions (restricting educational expansion) on educational facilities cannot fail to ultimately adversely affect our Irish economy, and thus indirectly injure both themselves and their families†(O’Sullivan 2005:269). In 1966, Donogh O’Malley announced free education was to be introduced. This was a significant development in Irish society. â€Å"O Malley’s Bombshell†, so called due to his lack of consultation with people over his announcement, detailed free education to leaving certificate at the age of 18, and free buses providing transport for students. This was an attempt to keep children in Education for longer and to an older age. At the time, around 17,000 children left school after finishing primary education. (Randles, 1975:216) He also announced that he was raising the age that children could leave school to 15 years of age from 14 years of age. This was due to be in place by 1970, but this was later deferred until 1972. (The reason behind this deferral was due to the success of the voluntary participation in second level education after the free education announcement, and also to give time to train teachers to know how to deal with the extra reluctant school goers who have less ability and/or educational motivation. ) The effect on numbers attending post-primary school was almost immediate, with a rise in secondary school enrolment of 15,000 between September 1966 and September 1967. An example of the popularity of the free bus scheme can be seen in the figures where out of 79,000 pupils in day school, 92% of the day school pupils opted for the â€Å"free buses† scheme-(Randles p. 276) The government estimated that the number of pupils in post-primary schools increased from 149,000 in 1966 to 184,500 in 1968, and that the raising of the school leaving age to 15 years of age would eventually lead to over 200,000 before the end of the third programme for education. (Hyland, Milne et al 1995). The success of the bill can be measured in the figures of how many pupils and schools opted into the scheme for free education. O’Malley had hoped for a figure of 75% of pupils opting for free education, but the figures showed that in September 1967, the figure was in fact sitting at 92%. (Randles 1975:276) An extract from the â€Å"Third Programme for Economic and Social Development 1969-1972† which was laid before the Houses of the Oireachtas in March 1969, shows that the government acknowledging the link between education and economic and social development, â€Å"The vital role of education in economic and social development and the need for fundamental changes in this sector has been repeatedly stressed in recent years. This increased emphasis has been reflected in the expansion in state expenditure. During the first programme, Exchequer expenditure on education (excluding agricultural education) increased from less than ? 16 million in 1958/59 to over ? 25 million in 1963/64 at current prices. The rate of increase has been even greater during the second programme; Exchequer expenditure in 1968/69 is estimated at ? 56 million†. (Hyland, Milne et al 1995:41) Changes in Government understanding of education. By the end of the 1960’s, it was for the first time that economic need was shaping education policy rather than pedagogy of the past. This is reflected when Brian Lenihan, who took over as minister for education when Donogh O Malley passed away suddenly in 1968, ordered a review of the education system with a view to job requirements, further emphasising the point that it was now an economy driven vision of education that we were adopting. However, this review was cancelled when Fianna Fail returned to power in 1969 and Padraig Faulkner was minister for education. The third Programme for Economic and Social Development also highlighted the need for more qualified teachers. The report states that â€Å"The number of teachers in secondary and vocational schools has been increasing by about 400 per year. The increase in 1968/69 is about 800†. (Hyland, Milne et al 1995:43) To facilitate the demand, there was a greater number of places in the relevant faculties in University, courses leading to the Higher Diploma in education was introduced in Maynooth, and there was an increase in departmental courses for the training of vocational teachers. The growth in the economy and in the technical sector led to the need for more people qualified in the technical areas. This combined with the OECD report highlighting the need for a building programme in Ireland led to the opening of RTC’s, Regional Technology Institutes. The building of the technical institutes regionally was to serve the dual purpose of tackling the problem of people being geographically disadvantaged, and the need for more technical courses. The relative success in this can be measured in rise of numbers attending, 5. 9% of people took up places in RTC’s in 1965, compared to 36. 7% in 1981-1982. The shift in emphasis or the uptake of higher education courses was towards technical courses, going from a level of 80% of students being in higher education in Universities, to 50% of people taking higher education courses taking up places in technical courses in 1980. Changes in Government understanding of schooling and curriculum While the period from 1965 to the early 1970s was primarily noted for developments such as the introduction of free education and bus travel, the raising of the school leavers age, and the introduction of comprehensive and community schools, it is worth also focusing on the curricular and educational policies that took places in this period. The main changes in regards to the curriculum include introducing common courses and examinations in secondary schools, thus enabling students attending vocational schools, comprehensive and community schools to study for the same exams as they would have been doing had they gone down the traditional route and attended some of the traditional secondary schools. Other changes to the curriculum included the introduction of new subjects, the removal of others, and the changing of content in others. One of the reasons why the second level curriculum was subjected to continuous adaptation around this time(early 1970’s) was to cater for the varied needs and abilities of the greater student population, which was a broader spectrum of student that there had been previously. In 1969, Minister for Education Brian Lenihan produced a booklet called, â€Å"All our Children†. The idea behind this booklet was to explain the changes that were happening in education in Ireland, such as the new Primary School Curriculum, the opening of Comprehensive schools, the new subjects and revision of others, as well as the building of technical colleges. Education in the 1970s may not have strictly followed the guidelines set out in the booklet, but it is an example of the way the government was changing in the way they were thinking about education, and their efforts to keep the public informed. Its publication also highlights the growing demand for information about education from the general population that was occurring at the time. Contrast this to the attitude towards education in previous decades and it highlights how far Ireland had come in such a short period of time. A further example of the change in how the government were approaching education and policy was evident when in 1970, then minister for education Padraig Falkner, said that there was now a change in the emphasis in educational, and that it was now a case of â€Å"passing from that of quantity to quality†, i. e. â€Å"from concentration on an expansion in the number of students attending at educational institutions to particular concern with the diversity of opportunity provided, the suitability of curricula, and long term planning for the future. †(Mulchahy, O’Sullivan 1989:81) This change in thinking and understanding led to developments such as the social and environmental studies project (SESP) based at St Patricks Comprehensive School in Shannon being set up, as well as projects aimed at developing the curriculum in other schools. The Higher Education Authority was set up by an act of the Oireachtas to advise the government on developing higher educational facilities. In 1971 there was the introduction of the New Curriculum for primary schools. Throughout the 1970s Ireland saw changes at third level, with the setting up of the nine Regional Technical Colleges, two National Institutes of technologies, and the opening of Thomand College. During this period, spending on education soared, from ? 78million in 1970 to ? 443 in 1979. (Hyland, Milne et al 1995:50) Faulkner also set up a committee in September 1970 â€Å"to evaluate the present form and function of the Intermediate Certificate examination and to advise on new types of public examinations†. (Randles 1975:315) The rationale behind this came from the drop in the pass rate for the Intermediate Certificate, from 87% in 1968, to 74. 6% in 1969 and then 73. 5% in 1970. This can be attributed to students with a larger span of abilities entering post primary and taking the examinations than had been the case before, and all of these students targeting the Intermediate exam regardless of its suitability to them. It was now being recognised that the Intermediate exam wasn’t suitable to all. The developments at third level are also important to note. Aside from the developmental works/building works done in providing the new RTC’s, aided by the setting up of the Higher Education Authority, teacher training was now looked at as being increasingly important. Teacher training courses was extended from two to three years; the National Institute for Higher Education was set up in Limerick, and Thomand College acting as a facility where teachers of specialist subjects could be educated. There is also a move to lower the pupil-student ratio, and to have greater accessibility to third level education for all. These changes at government level throughout the 1970s and early 1980s highlight the changes in the thinking behind education. No longer was it a â€Å"quantity† issue, it was now about â€Å"quality† of education. Greater facilities, better trained teachers, and increased availability of opportunities at third level are now real issues. If you contrast this to the early 1960’s, where it was a case of getting as many people into education, and then keeping them there as long as possible. Conclusion The way schooling in Ireland was understood changed dramatically over the period between 1965 and the end of the 1980s. It is a period of time where there is so much to discuss and it is hard to limit to speaking about just a few things. I felt that the most significant changes took place in the late 60’s, early, 70’s. I feel these were the most significant because these changes paved the way for changes that were to follow. The change in peoples understanding of the importance of education in turn led to an increased demand for education. Government understanding of the importance of education for the future economy combined with the growing demand for fairer access to education led to the hugely significant announcement of free education and free travel. At this point it was about getting the most amount of people into post-primary education as possible, but it wasn’t long before we began to realise that the quality of education needed to be looked at. The quality of teaching and the quality of what was being taught was looked at. Curriculum and examinations were investigated and changed. Real issues were now being addressed, such as third level requirements. Technical Institutes and courses were built and provided regionally. What made all of the changes so significant for me was the fact that for so long very little had been done in this field. The period between 1965 and the 1980s was a period where both the general public and government, began to see the importance of quality education, accessible to all, and its importance in the development of both the individual and the country. The developments of this period were a major stepping stone to where we are today. References Walt Rostow, â€Å"The Stages of Economic Growth†, 1959. (Available Online at) http://www. nvcc. edu/home/nvfordc/econdev/introduction/stages. html Irish Educational Documents, Volume 2 Aine Hyland, Kenneth Milne (Online Version found here) http://books. google. ie/books? id=8yNl5UCocFIC&pg=PA268&dq=1970+The+community+schools+proposal+ireland&hl=en&sa=X&ei=2H4ET6qMEYLLhAe-6pi-AQ&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=1970%20The%20community%20schools%20proposal%20ireland&f=false Articles from above Book; Investment in Education, inaugural speech, October 1962 Page 29-32 Third Programme for Economic and Social Development, 1969-1972, Post Primary, 14. Page 43 Whitepaper on Educational Development 1980, foreword Page 52 Ar ndaltai uile- All Our Children 1969 Page 45-47 Bibliography Irish Education Policy, Process and Substance, D. G. Mulcahy & Denis O’Sullivan Cultural Politics and Irish Education since the 1950s, Policy, Paradigms and Power, Denis O Sullivan Post-Primary School Education in Ireland 1957-1970 Sister Eileen Randles, Veritas Publicans 1975 The Politics of Irish Education 1920-65 Sean Farren.

Disaster Management Viii

An Introduction to Disaster Management for Class 8 Central Board of Secondary Education ‘Shiksha Kendra’, 2, Community Centre Preet Vihar, Delhi – 110092, India Tel : 91-011-22509252-57/59, Fax : 91-011-22515826 E-mail : [email  protected] vsnl. net. in Website : www. cbse. nic. in TOGETHER, TOWARDS, A SAFER INDIA An Introduction to Disaster Management for Class 8 FIRST EDITION 2003 ? CBSE, DELHI ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AUTHORS Dr. Kamala Menon, Principal, Mirambika School, New Delhi Ms. A. Venkatachalam, Mother’s International School, New Delhi Ms. P. Thakur, Education Officer, Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan, New Delhi EDITORS Shri M. P. Sajnani, Director (Disaster Management), Ministry of Home Affairs, Govt. of India Ms. Aparna Kanda, Programme Associate (Vulnerability Reduction and Sustainable Environment) UNDP, New Delhi COORDINATOR Ms. Sugandh Sharma, Education Officer (Commerce), CBSE , Delhi CBSE ADVISORS Mr. Ashok Ganguly, Chairman Mr. G. Balasubramanian, Director (Academics) PUBLISHED BY : The Secretary, Central Board of Secondary Education, ‘Shiksha Kendra’, 2, Community Centre, Preet Vihar, Delhi 110 092 DESIGN & LAYOUT BY : CBSE, Delhi PRINTED BY : Tara Art Press, B-4, Hans Bhawan, B. S. Zafar Marg, New Delhi – 110 002 Ph. 23378626, 23379686 ii Hkkjr dk lafo/kku mIsf’kdk ge] Hkkjr ds yksx] Hkkjr dks ,d1 [lEiw. kZ izHkqRo&laiUu lektoknh iaFkfujis{k yksdra=kRed x. kjkT;] cukus ds fy,] rFkk mlds leLr ukxfjdksa dks% lkekftd] vkfFkZd vkSj jktuSfrd U;k;] fopkj] vfHkO;fDr] fo’okl] /keZ vkSj mikluk dh Lora=rk] izfr†Bk vkSj volj dh lerk izkIr djkus ds fy,] rFkk mu lc esa O;fDr dh xfjek vkSj2 [jk†V? h ,drk vkSj v[k. Mrk] lqfuf’pr djus okyh ca/kqrk csa vkSj mldk ifjj{k. k djsa( izkd`frd i;kZoj. k dh ftlds varxZr ou] >hy] unh] vkSj oU; tho gSa] j{kk djsa vkSj mldk lao/kZu djsa rFkk izkf. k ek= ds izfr n;kHkko j[ksa( oSKkfud n`f†Vdks. k] ekuookn vkSj KkuktZu rFkk lq/kkj dh Hkkouk dk fodkl djsa( lkoZtfud la ifYk dks lqjf{kr j[ksa vkSj fgalk ls nwj jgsa( O;fDrxr vkSj lkewfgd xfrfof/k;ksa ds lHkh {ks=ksa esa mRd†kZ dh vksj c

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Exam - Speech or Presentation Example This leads to mistakes while driving and accidents follow. Similarly, driving at extremely high speed increases the number of accidents because any slight driving mistake at such high speeds are fatal. Reckless driving also increases rates of accidents through collision with other vehicles, pedestrians or objects along the road (Hour, 2007). The coefficient of determination can be directly obtained from excel’s summary of output. It is given by the value for R2 in the summary output. According to the data, the coefficient of determination is given by, Coefficient of determination represents the proportion of the dependent variable that can be explained by the explanatory variables. The value from the output statistics therefore indicates that the regression formula explains about 64.32 % of the data. The correlation coefficient indicates the degree and direction of correlation between variables. It shows how strong the variables are related with high absolute values (closer to one) indicating strong correlation while low absolute values (closer to zero) indicates weak correlations. Positive values of the coefficient of correlation indicate a direct relationship between the variables while a negative value indicates an inverse relationship between the variables. The value of coefficient of correlation, 0.802, indicates that the age and number of concerts visited are directly correlated. The correlation is further identified to be strong as the coefficient is closer to one. The model represents a multiple regression. This is because simple regression is characterized by existence of a single explanatory variable while multiple regressions have more than one independent variables. The model under consideration has three independent variables, which qualifies it for a multiple regression. Where y is the age at death and x1, x2 and x3 are

What It Means To Be An Effective Digital Citizen Assignment

What It Means To Be An Effective Digital Citizen - Assignment Example Such an invention will be used till a better alternative is found. One of the best things that have ever been discovered by man apart from fire is electricity and the computer. The potential and use of these discoveries are wide, diverse and can never be overestimated. However, like any other invention it has the capability of harming humanity and the natural order of things. Digital is the general word to describe computers and their various applications. Digitalization has led to the discovery and boom of a number of devices such as mobile phones, smartphones, laptops, desktops, microchips and other numerous gadgets in the digital world. However, just like any other invention, the digital inventions can be used for various mean and malicious purposes. The Term digital citizenship is used to refer to the various means that digital technology can be made available to everyone (Nine Elements, 2015). This is because making it available to everyone will enhance the efficiency in which humanity communicates information, and manipulate information. It is important to be efficient in matters of information and data since information is power. To some of the scholars, gaining equal digital rights and pushing for the access of digital technology is good of Digital Citizenship. It is bound to be difficult to progress as a society if some part of the society is denied digital technology. Commerce in the digital world; consumers in the digital world need to be aware that business is one of the diverse application of the digital technology. Legal and legitimate tradeoffs occur online by use of digital gadgets. However the users in the digital world need to be aware of the issues that are associated with digital commerce. At the same digital commerse, there is exchange of goods and services and money that are against the morals and virtues of some nations. The

DIVORCE AND CHILDREN Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

DIVORCE AND CHILDREN - Essay Example Divorce is already commonplace in the United States. This is the case across all relevant demographics: regardless of the social class, age, religion and ethnic membership, divorce is prevalent. For example, recent estimates reveal that between 40 percent and 50 percent of recent first marriages are likely to end in divorce (Lamanna and Riedmann, 474). Statistics also paint a grim scenario. In 2009, the Census Bureau reported that the marriage rate in America is 7.5 marriages per 1000 people and the divorce rate is 3.6 per 1000 people (Andersen and Taylor, p.326). The high incidence of divorce highlights the degree of impact on all parties involved as well as the society in general. Because the experience involved is recognized as painful and difficult. The adults – the husband and wife – undergoing this process encounter tremendous stress and pressure. An expert on the subject explained that this is a commonality across all divorcing partners. The story, wrote Antunes, often went like this: After months or sometimes years of discussions, hurtful arguments, destructive behavior, indifference, tears, betrayals, false hopes, starting over, forgiving, counseling, praying and doing everything we can think of in order to â€Å"fix† our marriages, we arrived at the Crushing yet defining moment when we knew our relationships were over (ix). If the process is an ordeal for the husband and wife, one can only imagine the toll it will claim on their children. As depicted in the above account, divorce seemed like a battle and children are most assuredly caught in the crossfire. This is one of the most compelling reasons why divorce can be considered bad. It adversely affects the hapless children. Adverse Effects on Children It is common sense to claim that there are only rare cases when children do not feel sad about their parents’ divorce. The fact is that they are often torn by conflicting loyalties: who should they side with in the conflict? In addition, feelings of fear, loss and anger are also common, along with desires for reconciliation (Andersen and Taylor, 327). The psychological impact of losing parents to this process is significant. In the short term, children experience feelings of confusion as well as the feeling of being betrayed as they helplessly witness how their family unravel and torn apart before their eyes (Clarke-Stewart and Brentano, 106). Also, as their parents tangle between themselves and embroiled in their own troubles, children are also in danger of being neglected. Because of these variables, children’s lives are negatively affected in the long term. For instance, a study revealed that 70 percent of children living with divorced parents had lower levels of well-being in comparison with children raised in intact families (Clarke-Stewart and Brentano, 106). In addition, these children can also display violent and antisocial behaviors especially when the divorce is typified by high conflict. Poor performance in school and poor adjustment skills are also accepted outcomes especially when research indicates that families on the verge of breakup have been found to be typified by â€Å"less intimate interparental and parent-child relationships, less parental commitment to children’s education, and fewer economic and human resources, resulting in more academi c, psychological and behavioral problems† (Goldstein, 197). So, all in all, the process for divorce is a crisis for children. This is critical because there are just numerous variables involved and that these tend to accumulate, leading to a much bigger problem, amplifying the estimated severity and pathology of psychological and emotional disturbance, changing the children’s behavior and character in the process. It is important to note that children are created by society. Morton explained this circumstance when he argued that â€Å"children are assigned to social groups by lottery† and that â€Å"once they are in a group, they remain there for life†. These arguments are aligned with the philosophical school

Growth and Decline Essay Example for Free

Growth and Decline Essay Areas of growth and decline in the primary, secondary and tertiary classifications of business activities Firstly the primary sector, obtain or produces raw goods. The secondary sector manufactures and constructs goods. Finally the tertiary sector provides services to businesses and/or individuals. Over time whole sectors can grow or decline. Absolute growth or decline means that on its own a sector is getting bigger or smaller. If this type of decline happened continuously, one day a sector would disappear. Relative growth or decline means a sector is doing better or worse compared with other sectors. It may be growing relative to other sectors but still not doing very well. Or it may be declining relative to other sectors, but doing quite well on its own. Overall the primary and secondary sector is declining and the tertiary sector is growing. This is because we as a country are becoming more of a service culture. The primary and secondary sector has decreased because we can now use machinery to do certain jobs that people used to do and so people have to find work elsewhere in the tertiary sector. The primary sector has decreased rapidly through time from 1980 to 2002 and the employment rate for primary industries has decreased by over 65% going from 3. 6% to 1. 4%. This is because people no longer produce their own food or own animals for meat and so as the years went on people started to trade the food that they produced and the animals they owned for other products which leads on to the tertiary sector. However within the sector the output has risen from. Fishing fleets, coal mining and quarrying are all examples of areas in the primary sector that has declined. This is because machinery can do most jobs that people used to do, foreign industries also became more competitive and imports such as coal became more affordable. As the availability of coal declined in the UK, and also became more expensive to extract more coal was imported. This led to a further decline in primary sector employment in the UK. The primary sector has although increased in its organic food production, wind farming, fish farming and oil and natural gas extraction. The number of organic producers has risen from 6,038 organic producers in 2004 to 7,567 organic producers in 2009 this is because the demand for organic food has increased as more and more people want to eat food without artificial fertilizers and pesticides. However even with this increase the primary sector is declining compared to the secondary and tertiary sectors as employment for the primary sector in 2008 is only 1. 6% of the UK whereas the secondary sector has an employment rate of 17. 6% in 2008 and the tertiary sector has an employment rate of 80. % in 2008. This shows that the primary sector is declining along with the secondary sector but at a much more drastic rate. The secondary sector is doing better than the primary sector as pointed out in my last paragraph however is declining largely compared to the tertiary sector. Between 2005 and 2008 the secondary sector was on the rise as employment in manufacturing increased and the output of the secondary sector increased. H owever as the recession hit, the secondary sector saw a decline of output from 23% in 2008 to 6. 5% at the start of 2009. The areas hit most were industries metal products, transport (engineering) and construction. Over 140,000 jobs were lost in the motor industry, BAE systems cut 500 jobs and SANYO closed its factory which made televisions – ever since no factory in Britain made televisions. Later in 2009 the decline started to slow down but hasn’t improved much since as companies are still making cut backs. Going back to 2005-2008 the areas that were most successful in the secondary sector were the food and drink industry, drugs and pharmaceuticals, weapons, ammunitions, energy, electrical and optical equipment and finally paper and publishing.

A Case Study Of The Code Switching Patterns English Language Essay

A Case Study Of The Code Switching Patterns English Language Essay The study investigates the use of Lithuanian and English and code-switching between the two in a family of Lithuanian-English bilinguals living in London. The data was collected by means of recording in the family home. The recording was then transcribed and analysed, allowing me to identify a number of features of the features of the language choice and code-switching patterns. These included convergence or divergence from the viewpoint of the previous speaker, lexical need, translation to allow for greater fluency in the conversation, trigger words and the perceived identity of the speaker. I conclude from these observations that code-switching can be seen as a versatile and fluid phenomenon which allows the speaker greater freedom of expression and performs a number of functions, both social and pragmatic. The speakers use their languages to This dissertation looks at bilingual conversations between family members in a family environment. The main focus of the work is the strategic use of code-switching. My particular interest is on how different members of the family use code-switching in order to express their national and individual identity and how this usage reflects their attitudes towards their languages. Theoretical background to the study: Bilingualism A fact frequently mentioned in bilingual studies is that over half the world is bilingual (Hoffmann 1991). However, patterns of individual language use within bilingual communities are diverse and it has been claimed that bilingualism is more common in unilingual countries (Mackey 1970). Lithuania has a high level of bilingualism with over 70% of the residents being multilingual (http://www.stat.gov.lt/en/). Language use is influenced by social circumstances, especially with regard to the communicative situation in which the language is employed. Bilingualism, however, is not automatically sustained without regular exchanges in the pertinent languages. (Ervin-Tripp and Reyes 2005). Languages amongst second generation immigrants seem to be maintained in strong correlation to the amount of exposure within the home. Mackey Bilingualism Reader page 35. The level of language proficiency and performance are affected by the intention of the speaker and the kinds of actions taken in order to satisfy that function. The attitude of a speaker towards his or her language is a major factor in their language behaviour. A speaker who feels ashamed of his or her level of a particular language may use this less frequently or only use it in certain company. Certain languages carry political associations and can be unpopular for this reason -for example, Russian was unpopular in many countries in the Soviet Union. Bilingual immigrant children may associate their second language with that of their friends and social life and have a more positive outlook towards this (Lambert et al 1958 see Bilingualism a reader for ref). Code-switching Code-switching is remarkably common in language contact situations, especially within plurilingual societies. The majority of code-switching studies have concentrated on the social motivation behind the switches (e.g. Myers-Scotton 1993) in addition to grammatical or syntactical constraints or psychological mechanism (e.g. Grosjean 2001). Alternation between languages seems to depend on a number of factors., including the conversational topic of the speaker, the person to whom he or she is speaking and the level of tension which he or she feels when taking part in the conversation for example when very tired, nervous, or angry. Myers Scotton (1993) amongst others has pointed out that bilinguals use code-switching in order to make the greatest use of their linguistic repertoire. For many bilinguals this is a part of their daily life. In multilingual societies this would take place in a variety of contexts, but in the UK this is most commonly found at home in a family environment. For this reason the study focuses on a family conversation. Age is a major factor for consideration in the study of language use within a family. For younger immigrants bilingualism can be a short process which can lead to the second language overtaking the first if home is the only environment in which the first language is utilised. (Tits 1959 see bilingualism reader for ref). The study of younger immigrants is specialised as their stability in their first language needs to be considered whereas with older immigrants their first language is far more fixed and stable. 1.1.2 Lithuania and the Lithuanian language According to the Office for National Statistics (www.statistics.gov.uk), an estimated 74,000 Lithuanians lived in the UK in 2010. Lithuania became independent from the Soviet Union in 1990 and became a member of NATO and the European Union in spring 2004. Since Lithuanian independence many changes have taken place and popular culture is highly influenced by Western Europe and the USA. An important change regarding language is that many young people are now able to speak English or another foreign language, and have little knowledge of the Russian language. In Soviet times the very large majority of the population was fluent in Russian. More than 70% of Lithuanians living in Lithuania in September 2012 are bi- or multilingual. (http://www.stat.gov.lt/en/) Russian is still the most widely spoken second language with English now the second. (Statistics Lithuania 2008). The total worldwide Lithuanian-speaking population is estimated at about 3,100,000 (2011, http://www.indexmundi.com/lithuania/demographics_profile.html), about 2.9 million native Lithuanian speakers in Lithuania and about 200,000 abroad (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuanian_language). The Lithuanian language is a Baltic language which has been influenced by both Russian and Finnish, but retains many pure features of archaic Indo-European. The Russian language was particularly influential during the period of Soviet rule. Lithuanian is an inflectional language with seven cases and is gendered. The Lithuanian alphabet consists of 32 letters in the Latin alphabet using diacritical marks. There are two main dialects which differ significantly from each other: AukÃ…Â ¡taiÄ iÃ…Â ³ (AukÃ…Â ¡taitian, Highland Lithuanian) and Ã…Â ½emaiÄ iÃ…Â ³/Ã…Â ½emaitiu (Samogitian, Lowland Lithuanian). The family studied here speak standard or Highland Lithuanian. 1.1.3 Key terms Bilingualism Definitions of bilingualism vary greatly. Bloomfield (1933) describes it as: native-like control of two languages. However, this focus on the level of proficiency in each language does not refer to the use or function performed by the language. Definitions which are based on function take into account the fact that language is a communicative tool rather than an abstract entity. Weinreich (1953) describes bilingualism as: The practice of alternately using two languages. Els Oksaar (1983) takes function and proficiency into account in her definition of the ability of a person to use here and now two or more languages as a means of communication in most situations and to switch from one language to the other if necessary (p. 19). Hoffmann (1991) points out that bilingualism is relative, and although there have been many attempts to define it, none of these is equally valid. She suggests that a useful approach could be to form a bilingual profile for each individual, accounting for vari ables such as the language development and maintenance of the languages, their sequential relationship, the competence in each, functional aspects, linguistic features, attitudes and environmental circumstances. The term balanced bilingual is used to describe a speaker who has equal command of both languages. However, Fishman et al (1971) point out that this situation is rare. Bilinguals who are equally fluent in both languages (as measured by their facility and correctness overall) are rarely equally fluent in both languages about all possible topics; this phenomenon is invariably a reflection of the fact that societal allocation of functions is normally imbalanced and in complementary distribution rather than redundant (Fishman et al, 1971, in MacSwan, 1999: 30) . Code-switching Definitions of code-switching vary significantly between researchers. Code is generally used as a synonym of language, although there is some debate on this point, Jakobson distinguishing between the two terms, asserting that languages do not consist of codes, but rather contain them (Jakobson 1971). Some see code-switching as being the insertion of whole utterances in a non-dominant language between sentences (Dahl, Rice et al. 2010). Borrowing generally refers to the insertion of a word or phrase within a sentence while retaining the syntax of the matrix language. Code-mixing However, there is little evidence at present that there is a significant difference between these types, and many see the difference as best expressed in terms of a continuum (Clyne 2000). Jeanine Treffers-Daller (1994- linguistic c-s) points out that many researchers see a difference between instances of code-switching and transfer or interference both of these terms referring to the influence of one languag e on another. However, she argues that these can be seen as similar as they involve the occurrence of aspects of one language in a section of another language. In the current work, the term code-switching will be used in its broadest sense to refer to the use of two or more languages used within a conversation or utterance, whether this be inter- or intra-sententially, unless a particular term is used by another researcher cited here. Throughout this work I will refer to inter-sentential and intra-sentential code-switching switches which occur between sentences or within them respectively as originally defined by Polack (1980). Crossing (also language crossing or code-crossing) refers to the use of a language or variety which isnt generally thought to belong to the speaker (Rampton, 1997, in Auer 1998P. Auer (ed) 1997/98 Code-switching in Conversation: Language, Interaction and Identity (London: Routledge) Creolization is used here to mean the formation of a Creole language from the contact of a European language with a local language: http://oxforddictionaries.com Native speaker when used in this project refers to a person who has spoken the language in question from earliest childhood (http://oxforddictionaries.com). Rationale This is an ethnographic study using data obtained from naturally occurring speech of three bilinguals of differing levels of proficiency. The family were chosen as they are all first generation immigrants, bi- or tri-lingual and are integrated into British society while still retaining a sense of their Lithuanian identity through their visits to Lithuania and contact with Lithuanian friends and family. The mother, when collecting her son from school when he was about 5 years old, overheard him asking a friend: Did you know that I am half-Lithuanian? She then questioned him about why he thought he was only half Lithuanian when both his parents were Lithuanian. He answered that he was Lithuanian when he was at home because of his parents, but at school he was English because he spoke English there, and he knew he wasnt 100% Lithuanian, as he could not speak the language fluently. This biculturalism opens debate concerning the choice and use of language to broader issues such as identit y. Oksaar (1983) argues that an immigrants two languages usually perform distinct tasks and the distribution of the languages in relation to the cultural spheres may be a decisive factor for the immigrants degree of integration. This study aims to investigate how the level of proficiency in a language affects the code-switching patterns in this family and how the family members use their linguistic repertoire to express their identity as Lithuanian, English, or both. No attempt will be made in this work to examine grammatical restraints or features beyond a very basic level. Research Questions What are the language choices and code-switching patterns of the subjects in a family environment? Do the language choice and code-switching reflect on the proficiency level of the language used? What are the functional purposes of the code-switching? How are the individuals attitudes towards the two languages and their own identity reflected in their language behaviour? The first of these questions provides a general background on which the other questions are based. The second question relates the language choice and code-switching to the level of proficiency that the subjects have in the languages. Question 3 looks at the reasons behind the code-switching. Lastly, the final question examines if there is a relationship between the attitude of the individual and their language choices 1.4 Hypotheses That there is a correlation between the language choice and code-switching patterns of the speaker and their level of proficiency in that language. That the mother of the family, being the most balanced bilingual, will code-switch more frequently than the other two members of the family That the code-switching functions to facilitate understanding between all three members of the family and reflect their identities 1.5 Conclusion The structure of the paper is as follows: Chapter 1 has described the study and its aims. It has also given a brief summary of the key ideas which will be investigated and the terms which will be used throughout. The second chapter will review the literature which I feel is relevant and of interest to the present study. This will examine the perspectives on code-switching analysis, starting with the Rational Choice analysis. It will then examine Conversation Analysis as a tool for the analysis of code-switching data. Chapter 2 will also deal briefly with studies which look at the level of proficiency of the speakers and how this affects code-switching. The third chapter will describe the methodology used in the study including the research design issues and the positioning of the researcher. It will give an outline of the family background and history will then deal with the ethics, interviews and data collection which were carried out in order to conduct the research. A mention will also be made of the issues involved in data collection and the conventions used in the transcription as well as the methods used to analyse the data. Chapter 4 will look at the analysis of the data, dealing primarily with the research questions. It will examine the language choices of the subjects and how these choices reflect on the proficiency level of the participants in each language. It will then examine when the family code-switch when interacting and what the functional purposes of the code-switching appear to be. There will then be a discussion of how the language choices reflect the individuals attitudes towards the two languages. Chapter 5 concludes the study with a discussion of the implications of the findings and a summary of the research, looking at the limitations of the research and any further development required. Chapter 2 Review of relevant literature what about FAMILY studies and what is special about them? 2.1 Introduction QUOTATIONS ONE OR TWO PER PAGE In this chapter the literature concerned with the phenomenon of code-switching is examined to provide a conceptual framework. Studies have been carried out in this area from psycholinguistic, grammatical or sociolinguistic perspectives. This literature review will concentrate only on the sociolinguistic studies as these relate most closely to the research carried out. I will firstly consider the different perspectives on code-switching analysis Analyses based on the social connotations of the two languages and Conversation Analysis. I will then examine studies dealing with the level of proficiency of the speaker and how this affects code-switching practices. I will also briefly investigate studies of bilingual children before concluding by linking these studies to the study carried out here. The last forty or fifty years have seen a profusion of research carried out into reasons for code-switching and the different manifestations of the phenomenon. Studies in this area can be conducted for their own sake, in order to demonstrate characteristic features of a language. Code-switching is also studied in order to look at grammatical features or constraints across languages or for cognitive processing purposes. In addition code-switching can investigate the ways in which identities, be these individual or group, can be formed and demonstrated. It can also give additional meaning to an utterance which cannot be attributed to the meaning of the sum of individual words (Gardner-Chloros 2009) Code-switching is a conversational tool requiring competence pragmatically and grammatically (Koppe and Meisel 1995). Reasons why code-switching takes place are varied and complex. It is assumed to be related to the situational parameters of conversational topic, participant roles or the speech event itself (Auer 1995). However, intra-sentential code-switching may serve the purpose of emphasis, quoting another person, or to indicate a change in the participant addressed. It can also be used to indicate convergence or divergence from the previous participants statement (Zhu 2008). Inter-sentential code-switching can be used to fill gaps in lexical knowledge or to for emphasis (Zentella 1997) or to ask or answer rhetorical questions among other reasons. 2.2 Perspectives on code-switching analysis It is generally recognised that code-switching is meaningful from a social perspective. There are two broad schools of thought as to how this meaning is brought about. The first of these sees the choice of language as having a meaning, in terms of identity, views and values (Gumperz 1982, Myers-Scotton 1993). The other approach sees meaning as coming from the code-switching itself, that is, from within the conversation, rather than being reliant on external factors. This second approach concentrates on the sequences used and is generally studied using Conversational Analysis techniques. Increasingly researchers are favouring this second approach, as although it is widely acknowledged that social factors can play a significant role, this is not straightforward and cannot be assumed a priori (Cashman 2005, Williams 2005). 2.2.1 Analyses based on the social connotations of the two languages Language can be seen in terms of a we-code and they-code (Gumperz (1982). The we-code normally denotes a minority language linked to informal circumstances used by an in-group. The main community language, linked to formal circumstances, is a they-code. Typically in families in which the parents are immigrants to the UK, the parents will see their community language or mother tongue as the we-code and English as the they-code. Their children, however, brought up in the UK, are likely to feel that English is their we-code and to prefer to use this. Gumperz (1982) sees code-switching as meaningful from a social identity perspective. He carried out a study in Norway examining the use of Ranamal a local dialect, and Bokmal the standard language variety. These shared many similarities but were considered by speakers to be distinct. This distinction was important in order for the varieties to fulfil social functions. The local dialect was used with family, and to express local cultural identity, while the more standard variety was used in education and in the media. Many people switched between these two varieties depending on the topic of the conversation for example, an enquiry about family might be made in Ranamal, while Bokmal might be used while discussing business. Zhu Hua (2008) points out that a large body of evidence now indicates that there is no simple, one-to-one association between language and social values (p.1800) In an investigation into diasporic Chinese families in the UK, she examined the connection between social communication and socio-cultural values, focusing on code-switching between generations in conflict talk situations in which the speakers adopt different opinions on a subject. There appeared to be strategic language choices and positioning by the speakers. It appeared that code-switching functioned to focus the interactions between the speakers particularly when negotiating power relationships. Speakers showed convergence or divergence with the previous speakers view depending on their language choice speakers answering in the language in which they were addressed were is likely to be showing convergence. Investigations into non-Western code-switching have found evidence refuting the idea of different languages being associated with different groups. Stroud (1998) looked at the use of Tok Pisin, a national language, and Taiap, spoken by a tiny minority. It was found that no particular domain, subject or speech variety was spoken about in one language only. Rational choice analyses start from the basic standpoint of Gumperz (1982). The Markedness Model of Myers-Scotton (1993) makes the assumption that one language variety is always unmarked in any situation and that social norms act as constraints to speakers. She studied African urban communities and saw a distinction between the theories of allocation, where language behaviour is affected by the structure of society, and interaction, in which a person makes a rational selection to achieve a specific purpose. The mother tongue of the Kenyans studied was used with others of the same ethnic background and appeared to be important in terms of identity. It was also used for assistance from other members of the same group. English was used at home by those more affluent economically as it was assumed that this would help the children with their school education. The markedness idea is further developed in the Rational Choice Model (Myers-Scotton and Bolonyai 2001), which asserts that an unm arked choice is one in which the speaker chooses his or her language according to the conventions of the social norms. These norms can dictate that code-switching is in itself the choice which is unmarked. The Markedness Model appears to regard monolingualism as the starting point or norm and disregards variation between languages (Blommaert and Meeuwis 1998). The idea of strategic code-switching is also criticised as many see code-switching as an unconscious occurrence (Woolard 2004). This Rational Choice Model was employed by Alfaraz (2009) in a study of the use of Spanish and English in the Catholic mass. Quantitative analysis revealed a more frequent use of English than Spanish during the service, making English apparently the unmarked choice. On closer analysis, however, it could be seen that Spanish was used for the ritualistic areas of the service, making this the unmarked choice. Alfaraz asserted that pragmatic meaning was not conveyed though the directionality of switching in the data. Instead, code-switching seemed to be used to emphasise contextual information equivalent to what in monolingual settings is conveyed through prosody or other syntactic or lexical processes (Gumperz 1982 p.98). An example of this is in the use of pauses, which when between code-switched passages were found to be almost two seconds shorter than those between monolingual passages in the data, pointing towards the switching being used as a reinforcement of the effect of the paus e. The Rational Choice Model assumes that choices are made between codes according to external values. However, more recent thinking about how meanings can be interpreted has asserted that they can be interpreted from the conversation itself without the necessity of relating to external norms. Li Wei (1998) argues that code-switching can be used to show the authoritative level of the speaker and their preference linguistically. 2.2.3 Conversational analyses of code-switching see Nilep interactional section Macro-sociolinguistic aspects of code-switching, while giving a useful insight, can never determine absolutely code-switching. Gumperz (1982) maintained that in order to define the functions of code-switching a close and detailed analysis of conversation is necessary. On the basis of this he identified a list of six functions (quotation marking, addressee specification, interjection, reiteration, message qualification, and personalization versus objectivization. This list has led on to many other similar attempts to identify a list of code-switching functions (Romaine 1989; Nishimura 1997; Zentella 1997). These lists are problematic, however, as there are often problems with definition, as Auer (1995) points out. Although these may provide some useful guidelines, they are inadequate as a complete answer to the functions that code-switching carries out. .Auer (1984) claims that bilingual interaction is susceptible to local methods of language negotiation and code choice and is autonomous at one level from the larger ideological and societal structures to which it are related. Conversational analyses of code-switching focus on the actual interactions and the fulfilment of interactional goals which take place between the speakers rather than on external factors. Li Wei (2005) regards Conversation Analysis as an extension of Rational Choice analyses, but seeking evidence from talk-in-interaction rather than from external knowledge of community structure and relations (p.375). Myers-Scotton and Bolonyai (2001) have criticised this approach for the emphasis on transcriptions techniques and lack of focus on motivational choices. Li Wei (2002) claims that the conversational analysis approach is often used without explicit reference to the reasons why, but that it can demonstrate the motivation and intentions of the speaker in addition to r evealing the process of generating ordered activity . Code-switching is commonly believed to be related to other manifestations of bilingual or multilingual behaviour rather than an isolated occurrence. Translanguaging space covers a diversity of practices including code-switching, code-mixing, crossing and creolization. Li Wei (2010) studied the multilingual practices of three Chinese undergraduate maths students resident in Britain through Moment Analysis. This aims to capture seemingly spur-of-the-moment performances and to establish their causes and results. Speakers seemed to express their identities and create their own social spaces through utilization of the linguistic resources available to them. Translanguaging space can be a reflection of an individuals identity and demonstrates the way individuals use their linguistic resources to create their own space, rather than responding to external factors. Various patterns of interactions can be analysed in sequential code-switching Auer (1995). These can involve both the interlocutors speaking in different languages to each other, for example one person speaking consistently in English while the other replies in Lithuanian. However, this often leads to one interlocutor beginning to use the other language and becomes a monolingual conversation. When this pattern is seen it can indicate the preference of language by a speaker. It can also show the level of competence in a language (usually the speaker is more competent in his or her preferred language). It could indicate language choice for a social reason. Reyes (2004) states that code-switching can be used to extend communicative competence in situations where a single language is not adequate. Milroy and Wei (1995) claim that interlocutors decide on a language and that code-switching occurs within this. This code-switching becomes interactional in that participants often choose to speak in the language which best suits their interlocutor (Milroy and Li Wei, 1995). Their study found that Chinese immigrants to the UK varied in their language practices according to age, with the older generation preferring to use their Chinese mother tongue, and the younger generation showing a preference for English. Code-switching within this appeared to be used for repetition and emphasis, clarification and confirmation, as well as making language repairs (this last only amongst the adults). Critiques of Conversation Analysis claim that a focus too closely on conversation as the starting point for analysis in addition to not allowing macro-sociolinguistic evidence can result in unsatisfactory analysis of non-Western language behaviour. [L]anguage use and patterns of code-switching both structure and are structured by indigenous cultural practices (Stroud 1998 p.322). 2.3 Code-switching and level of proficiency Code-switching has traditionally been seen as the result of a lack of competence in one of the languages, or a practice which is lazy or inhibits language learning. Bullock and Toribio (2009) state that it is .à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ perceived by the general public as indicative of language degeneration (Bullock and Toribio 2009 p.1). However, studies have shown that these viewpoints do not reflect the truth (Hughes, Shaunessy et al. 2006). By focusing on code-switching as a resourceful process, it is possible to see the ways in which languages are used for communication and to advance learning (Liebscher and Dailey-OCain 2005). Weinreich (1953) described an idealised bilingual speaker who would use both codes distinctly. However, Grosjean (1997) has asserted that neither language system of a bilingual can be fully deactivated. This implies that bilinguals generally differ in some way from monolinguals, even in their principal language. Even the concept of the native speaker is now being cha llenged by code-switching practices (Gardner-Chloros 2009). The issue of the level of proficiency of the speaker and the effect of this on code-switching has long been under debate. McClure (1977) noted that the use of code-switching changes with age. Younger children were seen to code-switch nouns whereas older ones switched phrases and sentences, thus indicating that there is a level of proficiency which must be reached for code-switching to take place. However, according to Myers-Scotton (1993), there is no clear level of proficiency that a speaker must obtain in a second language in order for code-switching to take place. Code-switching has been seen as a strategy to cope with deficiencies in one or both of the languages (MacSwan 1999). These deficiencies were previously referred to as semilingualism (Cummins and Miramonte, 1989, in MacSwan, 1999) and were thought of as causing low academic achievement in multilingual children (Milroy and Muysken 1995, Tokuhama-Espinosa 2003). However, Li Wei (2000) points out that the term was used for ethnic minorities and not for the speakers of mainstream languages. Poplack (1980) was critical of the term for the implication that the speakers are not fully literate, and the stigma involved for those it referred to. Romaine (1995) points out that: Although it is popularly believed by bilingual speakers themselves that they mix or borrow because they do not know the term in one language or another, it is often the case that switching occurs most often for items which people know and use in both languages. The bilingual just has a wider choice at least when he or she is speaking with bilingual speakers. In effect, the entire second language system is at the disposal of the code-switcher. (1995, p. 143) A study carried out by Valadez, MacSwan and Martà ­nez

Managing Communications, Knowledge and Information

Managing Communications, Knowledge and Information TASANIA BANTON BUSINESS PROFILE Founded in (2014) and located at 123 Bridgeview avenue half way tree, Miracle Obsession Cosmetic is a company that specializes in many different types of cosmetic products. The company offers products and services ranging from concealers, foundation, finishing powder, lipbalm , lipstic, makeup removal, mascara, eye-brow-pencil, and many other products. The company was established by two individuals who thought they could be a good competition for the MAC cosmetic line. Hence they partnered together and created this growing cosmetic company and hope to achieve its goals and objectives through good management, good marketing and having a good promotion body. Miracle Obsession is a company that promotes their products and services through different medias such as (social medias) Facebook twitter and other medias such as newspaper, television, and magazines. The company chooses these methods of promotion and advertisement because it will aid and helps in attracting the interest of cosmetic lovers. Miracle Obsession biggest goal is to have as many branches as possible throughout Jamaica and the company also looks at going international within the next two to three years. Miracle Obsession hopes to achieve one of its major goal which is to higher as much unemployed Jamaican that are willing to make the company benefits which intern will be of great important for them to benefits also. The cosmetic company faces simple difficulties such as employees not being able to represent the brand company as they should. However the management body seeks to employ persons with experience within the customer service industry. To conclude miracle Obsession business profile the company works towards maintaining competitive advantage over it competitors and continues to be one of the leading cosmetic companies in Jamaica. CONSULTING PROFILE A Brighter Future and Intelligence consulting firm is located in St Andrew Jamaica. This consulting firm was established in the year (1999), by two individuals Peter Johnson and Nishi Barclay who thought that they could take people’s ideas and helped them to put them to good use. Consequently, we have managed to advise our clients about the ways in which they can be great entrepreneurs through good management. The firm seeks to locate and achieve its goals and objectives by satisfying its clients’ needs through innovative ways. The key areas that we go through daily with our clients are marketing of goods and services, pricing strategies, good management and also the ways in which they can maintain competitive advantage. There are many different small investors that rely on us so we seek to continue to provide the best quality services for our clientele body and also future clients to come, so that we will continue to be one of the leading consulting firms within the island. However with on amount of over thirty (30) experienced experts combining their strategic skills with definitive management consulting prior to the firm knowledge of Ideas can make sense Know how. Hence whenever the firm identifies unsatisfied demand and new business opportunities they worked endlessly to bring forth its creative and innovative ideas. The firm continues to work endlessly to source development and implement logistic methods about the business environment and its purpose. In concluding A Brighter Future and Intelligences business profile, the company will continue implement and research good marketing strategies that will aid continue to have positive impacts on all the small businesses that depends greatly on the firms Knowledge. RATIONAL This research is about the ways in which information, knowledge and communication can benefit organizations. The researcher seeks to attain the relevant information that will aid in a better understanding of how important knowledge, communication and information are within the organization. The research intends to evaluate and analyze how to access information and knowledge need through the different sources and methods such as internal and external, primary and secondary, formal and informal. The researcher identifies the factors that can affect communication, knowledge, and information both positively and negatively within the organization. The research will therefore supply the researcher with substantial materials that influences the organization approaches in building a good organization through being knowledgeable about products and services gathering information that will improve on business decisions through effective communication. Bad communication skills are a major setback for organization to effectively make decisions and find solutions to problem. OBJECTIVES To identify methods of improvements that will aid in the range of decision to be undertaken and knowledge needed to ensure the effectiveness of the decisions. To identify the levels of stakeholders that will develop business relation which will aid in the decision making process for improvements. To create a personal plan for the organization that will encourage effective communication. to implement strategies that will improve systems relating to information and knowledge. LITERATURE REVIEW According to Wolfganf (2008), Communication is the exchange and flow of information and ideas from one person to another; it involves a sender transmitting an idea, information, or feeling to a receiver.Effectivecommunication occurs only if the receiver understands the exact information or idea that the sender intended to transmit. According to Kennerly (2008), Information is data that is accurate and timely, specific and organized for a purpose, presented with a context that gives it meaning and relevance, and can lead to an increase in understanding and decrease in uncertainty. Information is valuable because it can affect behavior, a decision, or on outcome. According to Denning (2009), knowledge is the factor condition of knowing something with familiarity gained through experience or association. Denning further stated that knowledge can also be defined as the ideas or understandings which an entity possesses that are used to take effective action to achieve the entity’s goals. An understanding of knowledge requires some grasp of its relationship to information. The human mind is often seen as being capable of two kinds of knowledge the Rational and the Intuitive. However Kennerly (2008),stated that organizations today have access to almost unlimited amounts of data-sales , demographics, economic trends competitive data, consumer behavior, efficiency measures, financial calculation ,etc. However, many decisions makers in organizations feel lost and perplexed. They have mountains of data and still are not capable of making the correct decisions, or understanding where they really are. METHODOLOGY Both qualitative and quantitative research approach will be utilized for this research study. The researcher intends to conduct a qualitative research in providing that information about the importance of a valid contract and the effects of the different elements of a contract. Therefore interviews will be used as the primary research approach. The researcher anticipates in conducting interviews with at least two different representatives that major in law. All interviews therefore will be taped record and are expected to endure for up to fifteen (15) minutes. A quantitative research approach will also be utilized and is expected in facilitating the researcher with information on the wider views of the public on their understanding of a legal contract and the impact of the elements of a legal contract. Surveys and questionnaires will be used as the methods of collecting and obtaining the information’s needed. Therefore the researcher plans on performing the various methods for conducting the research through one of the most popular social Medias which is known as facebook. Facebook will allow and influence the effective feedback, based on the larger amount of people. Therefore approximately fifteen (15) questionnaires questions will be post on facebook time line, in which the researcher plans to accept and analyze all the feedbacks from the respondents. The researcher will also use the secondary data collection method because it is more accessible, quicker, cheaper, saves time and provides a lot of necessary and relevant information. Secondary source of information can be of great benefit and is essential to use for this research project because it will provide the researcher with current and essential information. The secondary data will also assist in analyzing and structuring the appropriate ways in which this research project should be administered. However in utilizing all the methods and research approach to collect data and information will be of great benefit to the researcher and also others you anticipate in reviewing the research upon completion. REFERENCES John Wolgang. 2008.Communication and leadership. [ONLINE] Available at:http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/leader/leadcom.html. [Accessed 15 March 14]. Gregg Henriques. 2014.Theory of knowledge. [ONLINE] Available at:http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/theory-knowledge/201312/what-is-knowledge-brief-primer. [Accessed 15 March 14]. Kennerly. 2008.the use of information in decision making. [ONLINE] Available at:http://archive.audit-commission.gov.uk/auticommission/sitecollectiondocuments/auditcomissionReports/Nationalstudies/cranfieId_information_use_review.pdf. [Accessed 16 March 14]. Steve Denning. 2009.What is Knowledge. [ONLINE] Available at:http://www.stevedenning.com/knowledge-management/what-is-knowledge.aspx. [Accessed 16 March 14].

The Benefits of Cloning Essay -- essays research papers fc

The Benefits of Cloning Imagine having a twin that looks and acts exactly like you. Even more interesting this twin is a product of scientific cloning. If scientists have their way, identical replicas of human beings will be roaming the earth. This scientific vision may occur a lot more recent then many think. Cloning can be (better) understood by looking at it’s definition, process, and some examples. This first step to better understanding cloning is to hear precisely what it is. Cloning can be defined as an organism or group of organisms derived from another organism by an asexual reproductive process. Usually members of a clone are identical in genes (Clarke, 1). Even though the definition is relatively simple, it will be several years before these projects will be technically feasible. Many species are being considered for cloning, but legal battles often halt the complex process (Grossman, 1). Knowledge of the definition of cloning helps one better understand its difficult process. The process of cloning is long and tedious and most uncommonly unsuccessful. After many years of failure to clone using adult animals, most scientists started to think it was too tough. However Ian Wilmut of the Roslin Institute in Scotland found a new successful method (World Book, 1). It should also be noted that adult males have the lowest success rate of cloning (Okimoto, 2). The actual process of cloning is due to recent advances of Genetic Engineering. Scientists can now isolate an individual gene from one organism and grow it in another organism belonging to a different species (Clarke, 1). While this is occurring a scientist can also take a cells chromosomes and nucleus, and inject them into a fertilized egg whose own nucleus has been removed (Clarke, 3). However another new process that was used to clone the worlds most famous sheep, is starting to be used more often. This new process involved taking mammary-gland cells from a sheep and starve them of growth, then electrically inject an egg which was later transplanted into a surrogate mother. Out of 300 attempts, only one survived the process, Dolly a lamb born in 1996 (Worldbook, 1). The creation of Dolly is one of only a few examples that have ended in success . Having familiarity with the process of cloning helps one understand some cloning experiments. With odds like one out of 300... ...t Type of Process 1. Isolate an individual gene from one organism and grow it in another organism belonging to a different species. 2. While this is occurring a scientist can also take a cells chromosomes and nucleus, and inject them into a fertilized egg whose own nucleus has been removed. C. New Process 1. Taking mammary-gland cells from a sheep and starve them of growth, then electrically inject an egg which was later transplanted into a surrogate mother. III. Examples A. Huia Bird 1. Once native to New Zealand but extinct for its feathers. 2. Remnants of the birds cells or bones must be found before cloning can begin. B. Woolly Mammoth 1. Larry Agenbroad a university of Northern Arizona University geologist and his team of international scientists plan to clone a Woolly Mammoth from DNA remnants. 2. The frozen animal will be flown 200 miles from Siberia to a frozen tunnel, to be studied for DNA. Concluding Statement: The science of cloning can at first be considered very frightening. However once one has a better understanding of this science through its definition, process, and some examples, one should realize that some great possibilities could occur in the future

To Create a Better World :: College Admissions Essays

To Create a Better World    When you work for peace or any other aspect of social change, there are often hardships to overcome. You must believe deeply that what you are doing is right, or else you may become discouraged and give up. I have found that there are no easy solutions to problems involving social change. When you commit yourself to creating a better world, you are most likely committing yourself to a lifetime of effort.    To succeed, you must be willing to persevere in your efforts and you must keep a positive, hopeful attitude. In this work, it is often unclear who you are reaching or whether change is occurring. Thus, you must trust that your work for a better world matters. Sometimes change is occurring under the surface as a result of many individual actions, and suddenly the results become clear as in the cases of the fall of the Berlin Wall, the break-up of the former Soviet Union and the end of apartheid in South Africa.    The most rewarding life is one in which there is a major element of serving others. Many people find a way to do this in their lives. Of course, there are many ways in which an individual can be of service to others. Some of the biggest problems at the global level, though, go largely unaddressed by most of us, and I think this is an area where young people can make important contributions.    We have many global problems, but we are lacking global institutions powerful enough to effectively address such problems as global terrorism, human rights abuses, global warming, the ozone layer, pollution of the oceans and rivers, arms trade, child soldiers, war, the weaponization of space, and nuclear and other weapons of mass destruction. Finding a way to participate in solving these and other global problems is one of the great challenges of our time.    Global problems require global solutions. They also require World Citizens who identify with and give their loyalty to humanity and the web of life. Patriotism takes on new dimensions and becomes Humatriotism, loyalty to humankind. To change the world requires a new kind of thinking and new loyalties that transcend the nation-state. These viewpoints may put one at odds with some segments of society, but if some individuals do not have the vision and the courage to venture beyond the borders of conformity then change will never occur.

Anti-semitism Essay -- essays research papers fc

For more than two thousand years anti-Semitism has plagued the Jews, however, the term has only been around for about thirty years (Strack 594). Due to the hateful accusations and of those who did not understand their religion, Jews, as a scorned people, gradually became more exclusive and intolerant of other religions. Because of Judaism’s strict adherence to their own beliefs and unwillingness to consider any alternatives, Muslims and Christians have scorned and persecuted Jews.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  First, the Muslim’s basis for anti-Judaism rests primarily on religious beliefs. Islam teaches that Allah, the Muslim god, requires that a good Muslim pray a ritual prayer five times per day, give a token of their income to charity, and if possible a pilgrimage to Mecca, their Holy City (â€Å"The Rise and Spread of Islam†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ). â€Å"Muhammad himself was hostile to the Jews† (Rivkin 25) because he believed Allah to be the one true God and saw the Jewish Doctrine of the Trinity to be polytheistic. The Jews, however, rejected all divine worship except their own. Also, Jews had certain laws and customs concerning food and circumcision which further segregated them from the Muslims. All these differences gave rise to mutual rejection between these two groups. As part of his rejection of the Jews, Muhammad abandoned certain Jewish customs, for example, Saturday as the Muslim holy day and Jerusalem as the Muslim holy city (Davies 329). The conve rsion of a Muslim to any other religion was strictly forbidden and punishable by death. The Jews were given the dhimmi status â€Å"meaning that they were not deserving of slaughter and could retain their religious practices in a limited form† (â€Å"The Spread of Islam to India†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ). Just as slaves, the Jews did not possess full legal rights (â€Å"The Rise and Spread of Islam†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ). These dhimmis were merely tolerated and forced to pay special taxes and wear yellow badges as a means of public identification (Davies 329). Evidence presented by a Jew in court against a Muslim would not be accepted. Dhimmis had to obtain permission before building new places of worship or repairing old ones, and they could never construct worship cites that overshadowed Muslim places of worship. Jews were also prohibited from carrying arms, riding horses or camels, or inheriting from a Muslim (â€Å"The Rise and Spread of Islam†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ). In addition, Jews killed ani mals only a... ... labor by the Christians of the tenth century.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Finally, Muslims and Christians detested the Jews for being different than them. Anti-Semitism still exists today in many countries. For example, in Syria the government denies Jews the right to vote and restricts their emigration (Levanon 559). As Christians, it is our duty to refrain from slander and false accusations of Jews. Should we only show love to those who share our religious beliefs? Even the pagans love those who love them. (Luke 6:32) Are we not called to be different than the world and show the love of God to all? Bibliography Davies, Alan. â€Å"Anti-Semitism.† The Encyclopedia of Religion. Vol. 1. New York: Macmillan, 1995. Levanon, Yosef. â€Å"Anti-Semitism.† The World Book Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. Chicago: World Book Inc., 1993. â€Å"The Rise and Spread of Islam, 570-1258.† http://galenet.gale.com Rivkin, Ellis. â€Å"Jews.† Encyclopedia International. Vol. 10. Philippines: Lexicon Publications, 1980. â€Å"The Spread of Islam to India and Southeast Asia, 711-1400.† http://galenet.gale.com Strack, Hermann L. â€Å"Anti-Semitism.† Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics. Vol. 1. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, [n.d.]